SOCIAL SCIENCE PART-2 LESSON -3 EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS: 6TH TO 10TH CENTURIES (LESSON NOTES)

 

SOCIAL SCIENCE PART-2 LESSON -3

EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS: 6TH TO 10TH CENTURIES

(LESSON NOTES)

 

I. INTRODUCTION TO THE PERIOD (600 CE – 1200 CE)

Ø The period from 600 CE to 1200 CE marks the end of the Gupta Empire and the rise of regional kingdoms in India.

Ø This period is sometimes referred to as the post-classical, late classical, or early medieval period.

Ø During this period 0

Ø Large pan-Indian empires declined and were replaced by strong regional powers.

Ø Political rivalry increased, but cultural, artistic, and intellectual activities flourished.(Rock temples of Mamallapuram, Vikramaśhila. University, Kannauj)

Ø India remained dynamic and vibrant despite political fragmentation.

 

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II. HARṢHAVARDHANA AND NORTH INDIA

1. Rise of Harṣhavardhana.

Ø Harshavardhan ascended the throne in 606 CE at Kannauj.

Ø He belonged to the Puṣhyabhuti or Vardhana dynasty.

Ø His earlier capital was Sthaneśhvara (present-day Thanesar in Haryana).

Ø He expanded his kingdom over large parts of northern and eastern India.

2. Administration and Personality.

Ø Harṣha was a just, energetic, and capable ruler.

Ø He maintained a large army and frequently undertook military campaigns.

Ø He attempted to extend his empire beyond the Narmada but was defeated by Pulakeśhin II.

3. Religious and Cultural Policy.

Ø Harṣha was a devotee of Śhiva but also showed deep respect for Buddhism.

Ø He respected all religious sects and schools of thought.

Ø He held a grand religious assembly every five years at Prayaga and distributed wealth among Brahmins, Buddhists, and the poor.

4. Literary Contributions.

Ø Harṣha is believed to have written three Sanskrit plays.

Ø His court poet Baṇabhaṭṭa wrote Kadambarī (love story between a prince from Ujjayinī, and Kadambarī) one of the earliest novels in the world.

Ø Baṇabhaṭṭa also composed Harṣhacharita, a biography of Harṣha.

III. XUANZANG’S ACCOUNT

Ø Xuanzang was a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who travelled in India between 630 CE and 644 CE.

Ø He visited major Buddhist centres and collected more than 600 Sanskrit manuscripts.

Ø He translated many texts into Chinese after returning home.

Ø His travelogue provides valuable information about politics, religion, economy, and culture.

Ø He described Kannauj as a prosperous and beautiful city.

IV. THE TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE FOR KANNAUJ

Ø After Harṣha’s death in 647 CE, north India faced political instability.

Ø Kannauj became the centre of a long conflict known as the Tripartite Struggle.

Ø The three competing dynasties were the Palas from east,  the Gurjara-Pratīharas from west and the Raṣhṭrakuṭas from south.

Ø The struggle lasted during the 8th and 9th centuries without any permanent victor.

V. THE PALA DYNASTY

Ø The Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala in 750 CE in Bengal.

Ø Dharmapala expanded the empire into eastern and northern India.

Ø The Palas were great patrons of Mahayana Buddhism.

Ø They founded Vikramaśhila (Bihar) and Sompura (Bangladesh) university and supported Nalanda University.

Ø The Pala Empire prospered through maritime trade with Southeast Asia.

Ø Though Buddhist patrons, Pala rulers respected Hindu traditions as well.

Ø Though the empire later declined, it left a lasting legacy of strong governance and learning in parts of eastern and northern India.

VI. THE GURJARA-PRATĪHARAS

Ø The dynasty was founded by Nagabhaṭa I in the mid-8th century CE.

Ø Their early capital was Bhillamala (Rajasthan) and later shifted to Ujjayinī.

Ø King Bhoja expanded the empire across north India.

Ø Bhoja was a devotee of Viṣhṇu and assumed titles such as Mihira and Adi Varaha (Varāha is an avatar of Viṣhṇu in the form of a boar)

Ø The dynasty declined after attacks from the Raṣhṭrakuṭas and later the Ghaznavids.

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VII. THE RAṢHṬRAKUṬAS

Ø The Raṣhṭrakuṭas rose to power under Dantidurga in the mid-8th century.

Ø Their capital was Manyakheṭa in Karnataka.

Ø They were powerful for nearly two centuries.

Ø King Krishna I built the famous Kailaśhanatha temple at Ellora (gigantic sculpture-largest rock cut temple)

Ø Amoghavarṣha I was a long-reigning ruler and a patron of Jainism and literature. He took the title ‘Nṛipatunga’ or ‘peak of kings’.

Ø Despite frequent wars with neighbouring kingdoms, including those of the dynasties we surveyed above, he managed to ensure peace and prosperity in his empire — and stability, since his reign lasted for 64 years.

Ø They promoted Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions equally.

Ø Al-Masūdī, a 10th-century Arab historian and traveller from Baghdad, gave high praise to a Rāṣhṭrakūṭa ruler:

VIII. KASHMIR

Ø Kashmir rose as a powerful kingdom in the 8th century.

Ø Kalhaṇa wrote Rajatarangiṇī,(the River of Kings’ ) a historical account of Kashmir’s rulers.

Ø Lalitaditya Muktapīda was a strong ruler of the Karkoṭa dynasty.

Ø Queen Didda consolidated power in the 10th century.

Ø Kashmir was a major centre of Sanskrit learning and philosophy.

Ø According to tradition, Ādi Śhankarāchārya, the 8th-century scholar and teacher of the advaita vedānta school of philosophy, visited at Shankaracharya Hill (also known as Takht-i-Sulaiman  )

Ø Kashmir Śhaivism and scholars like Abhinavagupta whose works on philosophy, poetry, arts and aesthetics had a vast influence across India. Kashmir also served as a crucial bridge for Buddhist scholarship, with scholars, monks and texts traveling between Kashmir and other parts of northern India influenced Indian culture deeply.

IX. THE CHALUKYAS

Ø The Chalukya dynasty was founded by Pulakeśhin I in the 6th century.

Ø Pulakeśhin II defeated Harṣha and expanded the kingdom.

Ø The capital was Vatapi (Badami).

Ø Its author, the court poet Ravikīrti, records Pulakeśhin II’s victories over Harṣha.

Ø Xuanzang also visited the Chālukya kingdom and mentioned Pulakeśhin II’s “beneficent actions.

Ø The dynasty built magnificent cave temples at Badami and Aihole (Meguti Temple)

Ø Pulakeśhin II eventually tasted defeat at the hands of the Pallavas of Kānchī.

Ø By the mid-8th century, the Rāṣhṭrakūṭas had replaced the Chālukyas in the Deccan.

Ø Chālukya empire of Badami declined, its eastern branch asserted independence and expanded its power in the eastern Deccan. They are known as the Eastern Chālukyas and ruled from Vengi in present-day Andhra Pradesh

Ø A later revival of the dynasty in the west, from the 10th century onward, is known as the Western Chālukyas of Kalyāṇī, their new capital (modern Basavakalyan in northern Karnataka).

Ø The Eastern Chālukyas promoted several Hindu and Jain sects, as well as Buddhist centres; Telugu and Kannada literature flourished under their rule.

X. THE PALLAVAS

Ø The Pallavas ruled from Kanchī in Tamil Nadu. This dynasty reached its peak in the 7th century under Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I.

Ø Narasimhavarman I defeated Pulakeśhin II. He was also known as ‘Mamalla’, which means ‘wrestler’ or ‘warrior.

Ø They developed strong maritime trade relations with Southeast Asia.

Ø Narasimhavarman I also sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka to help a Sinhalese prince recover his lost throne.

Ø He built rock-cut temples (Monolithic) at Mamallapuram.

Ø They patronised Sanskrit and Tamil literature and hosted great poets such as Daṇḍin, who wrote elaborate Sanskrit poetry; Mahendravarman I himself was a fine poet who left a satirical Sanskrit play.

Ø They supported Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism. Xuanzang again in Kānchī, who speaks of the existence of 100 Buddhist monasteries with 10,000 priests.

Ø The Pallavas ruled over much of northern Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh until the late 9th century, when they were finally overthrown by the Chola king Aditya I.

XI. THE PAṆḌYAS, CHERAS, AND CHOLAS

Ø A millennium before our period, the Pāṇḍya, Chola and Chera kingdoms were mentioned in an edict of Aśhoka as his southern neighbours.

Ø They also figured in the Sangam literature.

Ø Then they seemed to disappear, eclipsed by other powers. Now they reemerge shaping the South’s political and cultural life.

1. The Paṇḍyas.

Ø The Pāṇḍyas rose to power by the 6th century. Allied with the Chālukyas and the Pallavas, they controlled much of southern Tamil Nadu and, for brief periods, northern parts of Sri Lanka .

Ø The Paṇḍyas ruled from Madurai a vibrant cultural centre.

Ø They engaged in maritime trade through ports such as Korkai.

Ø They built temples and promoted Tamil literature.

Ø In the 10th century, the mighty Cholas swept them aside, but they would re-emerge some three centuries later.

2. The Cheras.

Ø The Cheras ruled along the Kerala coast.

Ø Chera also known as Chera Perumals,

Ø They maintained maritime trade connections with West Asia.

3. The Cholas.

Ø The Cholas revived under Vijayalaya in the 9th century.

Ø From his new capital at Tanjāvūr (now spelt ‘Thanjavur’), he laid the foundation for a strong and prosperous kingdom

Ø Aditya I defeated the Pallavas and control present day Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Ø They developed an efficient administration and a powerful navy.

Ø They built grand temples, patronised bronze sculpture of Nataraja and promoted Tamil and Sanskrit literature.

Ø The fertile Kaveri delta supported agricultural prosperity.

Ø As Chola dominance in south India lasted until the 13th century,

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XII. POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION

Ø Most of the Kings ruled core areas directly and governed distant areas through samantas.

Ø These sāmantas were indispensable, as they led armies and managed local administration. Yet, their loyalty could be fragile. Sometime Samant became so powerful to overthrow their lords.

Ø Administrative divisions included provinces (BHuktis,Rashtra), districts (Manadals), and villages.

Ø Villages were largely self-governed. And controlled by Headmen.

Ø South India specially in Chola developed strong local assemblies such as the sabha.

Ø The Chola inscriptions at Uttaramerur describe democratic village governance.

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XIII. TRADE AND ECONOMY

Ø The land grant system expanded significantly during this time which began in Gupta.

 

Ø It creating a new class of landholders. Many of these holders did not till the land themselves.

Ø Agriculture grew due to irrigation projects and cultivation of new lands.

Ø Tanks and wells were constructed for irrigation.

Ø Trade flourished along both west and east coasts. Many copper plates inscriptions showing India was hub of international trade.

Ø Merchant guilds played an important economic role.

Ø Urban centres continued to thrive despite some decline in certain areas.

XIV. SOCIAL LIFE

• The number of jatis increased based on occupation and region during this time.
• Some tribes and migrants were absorbed into the varṇa-jati system, while foreign traders) remained as outsiders
• Social mobility was possible in some cases as  varṇa and jāti were flexible rather than rigid.
• Discrimination against certain communities existed.
• Bhakti Movement’ cut across all strata of the society; several bhakti saints, for instance, were Śhūdras.
• Women participated in economic, social, and religious activities.
• Some queens ruled effectively, such as Tribhuvana Mahadevi I (Orissa)

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XV. CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS

Ø Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism coexisted and influenced one another. They have occasional rivalries also as between Shaivites and Jainas in south India.

Ø Tantric traditions emerged during this period. They emphasising rituals, meditation, mantras, and the worship of powerful deities, especially Shakti.

Ø The Bhakti tradition expanded across India.

Ø Jainism remained popular in western India and Karnataka due to the support of rulers and wealthy merchant communities. Monolithic Bāhubalī at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka and the Jain cave temples at Ellora or Badami

Ø The Alvars and Nayanmars composed devotional poetry in Tamil. 12 Ālvārs, devotees of Viṣhṇu (Āṇḍāḷ, was a woman); and the 63 Nāyanārs or Nāyanmārs, devotees of Śhiva (including three women as Kāraikāl Ammaiyār,)

Ø Bhakti cut across caste and gender divisions.

XVI. SCIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE

Ø The period we deal with in this chapter saw brilliant advances in science and technology

Ø Brahmagupta who was born in 598 BC at Bhinmal introduced rules of arithmetic involving zero and negative numbers in his book Brahmasphutasiddhānta.

Ø He contributed significantly to algebra and astronomy.

Ø Bhaskara I who did pioneering work in trigonometry and wrote a lengthy commentary on the Āryabhaṭīya and Virahānka, the first to establish the Virahānka-Fibonacci sequence and Virahanka made important contributions to mathematics.

Ø Mahavīra a Jain scholar lived at the court of the Rāṣhṭrakūṭa king Amoghavarṣha Nṛipatunga wrote an independent mathematical treatise.

Ø Indian mathematical works influenced the Arab world and Europe.

XVII. FOREIGN INVASIONS

1. The Huṇas

Ø The Huns were a nomadic people originating from Central Asia in the 4th century. They were expert in horse-riding and archery lightning-fast attacks, they were fierce conquerors and overcame much of Europe.

Ø The Huṇas invaded north India in the 5th and 6th centuries.

Ø They were eventually defeated by Indian rulers (Mandose Inscriptions of  Aulikara king Yaśhodharma mention)

Ø By 7^th century  assimilated into Indian society. They adopted Sanskrit and Prakrit for their inscriptions and used Gupta-style royal titles, coin designs.

Ø One of the famous ruler Toramāṇa, who write his name as Tora in Brahmi script similar to Skandagupta , a gupta ruler.

2. The Arabs.

Ø After the death of Islam’s founder, Muhammad, in 632 CE, the new religion had spread far into Asia and Africa.

Ø Arab naval attacks began in 637 CE by muslim traders in Thānā (present-day Thane), Bhārukachchha (present-day Bharuch) and Debal, a port city.

Ø Muhammad bin Qasim a governor of Iraq conquered Sindh in 712 CE. 9 century historian Al-Balādhurī and Chachnāma mentioned this attack.

Ø The invasion marked the beginning of Islamic political presence in India.

Ø The Arabs did not give up easily and soon pushed into Rājputāna and the central region of Mālwā, but their gains were short-lived.

Ø An inscription at Gwalior records how the Gurjara-Pratīhāra king Nāgabhaṭa I, whom we met earlier, “crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechchha king. Sulaiman, a 9th-century Arab merchant also mention about Gurjar prtihaar kings.

Ø Kashmir’s King Lalitāditya Muktāpīda, whom we met earlier, defeated an Arab chief three times, according to the Rājatarangiṇī.

Ø India and Arabia were well connected through trade from long years with ships sailing back and forth with the monsoon winds

SUMMARY OF THE LESSON

Ø The period from the 6th to the 10th centuries saw the decline of large empires and the rise of powerful regional kingdoms.

Ø Harṣhavardhana was a significant ruler of early north India after the Guptas.

Ø The Tripartite Struggle involved the Palas, Gurjara-Pratīharas, and Raṣhṭrakuṭas.

Ø South India witnessed the rise of the Chalukyas, Pallavas, Paṇḍyas, Cheras, and Cholas.

Ø Administration became decentralised with strong local governance.

Ø Agriculture, trade, and merchant guilds expanded significantly.

Ø Society became more complex with the growth of jatis.

Ø Bhakti traditions reshaped religious and social life.

Ø Advances in mathematics and astronomy strengthened India’s intellectual tradition.

Ø Foreign invasions by the Huṇas and Arabs influenced political developments.